Article excerpt: During the last decade, the popularity of equestrian sports in the United States has increased dramatically to approximately nine million competitive athletes participating in grass-roots club sports to the elite level of competition (American Horse Council Foundation, 2017). Unlike most traditional sports, where both mental and physical abilities are dependent solely upon human decision and response, equestrian sports are dependent to a large degree on human: equine interaction and mutual collaboration to successfully complete a sport task. At the elite level, dressage, show jumping, and three-day eventing comprise the Olympic events, originally adopted from the rigorous demands of military cavalry training. Precision, stamina, versatility, and obedience were required to overcome often insurmountable odds in battle. Equestrian sports were initiated in Stockholm in 1912, with the present competitive format established at the Paris Olympics in 1924 (Littauer, 1962). Competition was limited, however, to commissioned officers up until 1956, with females allowed to compete in 1964. Interestingly, over 80% of equestrian competitors today are female, with a substantial number competing into middle age (Meyers, Bourgeois, LeUnes, & Murray, 1999; Nelson, Rivara, Condie, & Smith, 1994). From the start, the extensive hours of horse and rider training not found in other sports, and the inherent physical challenges associated with the blending of human: animal interaction can have a significant impact on performance outcome and injury potential (Meyers et al, 1999; Meyers & Laurent, 2010b). Considered a high-risk sport, physical trauma among equestrians ranges from nonfatal lower extremity soft tissue contusions and fractures from being stepped on or kicked, to fatal blunt force trauma from being thrown and/or trampled while performing (DeAraugo, McLaren, McManus, & McGreevy, 2016; Thomas, Annest, Gilchrist, & Bixby-Hammett, 2006). Most emergency medical cases involve traumatic brain injury (TBI), upper extremity and spinal fractures, and thoracoabdominal trauma across all ages, with over 40% of injured equestrians admitted for hospitalization following transport by ambulance or helicopter (Ball, Ball, Kirkpatrick, & Mulloy, 2007; Bilaniuk et al., 2014). Injury patterns are similarly documented across events with severity of trauma increasing as the athletes are required to perform more dynamic challenges/obstacles, e.g., dressage to three-day eventing, as well as increasing injury incidence rates reported among less-skilled competitors when compared to more experienced riders (DeAraugo et al., 2016; Mayberry, Pearson, Wiger, Diggs, & Mullins, 2007). As observed in other sports, performing well under pressure, having confidence and control over environmental and strategic challenges, and coping in a positive manner with adversity often times delineates successful from unsuccessful competitors (Lazarus, 2000; Meyers, Higgs, LeUnes, Bourgeois, & Laurent 2015b; Smith & Christensen, 1995). In other studies, it has been suggested that psychological indices of successful performance such as concentration, anxiety management, confidence, and motivation deteriorate as an athlete increasingly experiences psychological and physical challenges (Meyers, Stewart, Laurent, LeUnes, & Bourgeois, 2008; Nicholls, Holt, Polman, & James, 2005; Wang, Marchant, & Morris, 2004). With the increasing emphasis on talent development and enhancing the mental aspects of this sport, there has been consensus by coaches and numerous sport scientists that a proactive, sport-specific investigation into these variables would aid in more clearly defining present levels of sport-specific coping skills at all levels of competition (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2001; Meyers, Bourgeois, & LeUnes, 2001; Meyers & Laurent, 2010a). This would ultimately lead to the assessment and development of optimum psychological training strategies to enhance athletic prediction, maximize training effects, minimize predisposition to trauma, and focus on areas pertinent to successful equestrian performance (Bloom & Stevens, 2001 ; Meyers, Bourgeois, Stewart, & LeUnes, 1992a; Meyers et al. …
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